COUNCIL ON FOREIGN AND DEFENCE POLICY

DRUG ADDICTION IN RUSSIA: A THREAT TO THE NATION

Compiled by the working group headed by
Dr. Sergei Karaganov, Dr. Igor Malashenko and
Dr. Andrei Fyodorov

Moscow 1998

1. Among the many problems facing Russian society today, the problem of narcotics addiction is definitely assuming a more prominent position as a global threat to the health of the country's population and its national security.

2. Legal, medical, social, and other systems for the rehabilitation of drug addicts, along with a powerful public relations campaign against narcotics, today exist in many developed states.

In Russia, unfortunately, all this is either in an embryonic state or is altogether lacking. Against a background of a growth in the number of drug addicts and crimes committed under the influence of narcotics, such a situation demands from society the immediate adoption of radical measures.

3. These measures must be taken both by government bodies and by the media, cultural centers, and responsible Russian businesses.

We believe it essential to call the attention of decision-makers and those who influence the destiny of society--the executive and, especially, legislative authorities, and the leaders of the mass media--to the problem of drug-addiction in Russia. Society in fact has no immunity against this new, terrifying threat. It is defenseless.

4. The purpose of this report is

• to provide an objective description of the situation concerning drug addiction in the Russian Federation (RF); and
• to propose a set of measures for effectively combating it both inside the country and on the international arena (taking into account the fact that drug addiction has become one of the global challenges to humanity as a whole).

5. It is fundamentally important to as soon as possible significantly change the attitude of Russian society to the problem of drug addiction: from the existing attitude of relative indifference to one of active resistance. Everyone should become aware of the fact that the struggle against drug addiction begins first of all in the family, at school, and at the university; to stand aside and hope that the state will take care of everything without the support of its citizens is simply naive and even criminal.

1. Drug Addiction in Russia: Facts and Figures

1.1. Drug-addiction is spreading alarmingly fast in the former Soviet republics and, particularly, in Russia.

The statistical data primarily of both the Ministry of Interior of the Russian Federation and Russia's public health agencies testifies to this. However, there are reasons to believe that the situation is actually more alarming than that shown by the statistics.

1.2. Over the past five years the number of drug addicts in the country has grown approximately three and a half times; experts believe that, with a continuation of the present trend, the number of drug addicts in Russia next year may exceed three million people.

Thus, taking into account especially the age group of most drug addicts (13 - 25 years old), a third of the next generation of the country is in fact under threat.

In this regard, however, it is necessary to bear in mind that these numbers address only people who regularly use narcotics of the so-called "classical type." If one takes into account those who use various other forms of drugs, such as those who sniff glue, etc., then such people in the country number not less than in the tens of millions.

Russian society ought to be particularly alarmed by the 6.5 times growth in the past decade of the number of women who take drugs.

According to the data of the Ministry of Health, 219 thousand people had a medical record of non-medical use of narcotics, psychotropic and drastic substances at the beginning of 1988. About 39 thousand of these were minors and over 25 thousand - women.

It is fundamentally important to note that drug users in Russia make the transition from different kinds of "pseudo-narcotics" to narcotics proper much faster than in other countries. As shown by polls of Moscow school children, such a transition in most cases takes not more than a month--with all the consequences that follow. Moreover, the Russian drug scene is characterized by a rapid transition from "light" to "hard" drugs.

During a six month period in 1996, heroin addicts--the most dangerous and difficult (if not impossible) to cure--accounted for 28.4% of all the patients addicted to opium who were undergoing treatment at the Scientific Research Institute of Narcology. During the same period in 1997, they already comprised 74.4%.

1.3 The growth of drug addiction among schoolchildren, primarily in large cities, and among university students is especially alarming. It has increased by six-to-eight times during the last four years.

According to the latest data, in St. Petersburg every fifth pupil has already tried drugs, while in the senior grades of many schools as many as one third of the pupils are regular drug users.

In many of the most famous higher educational establishments in Moscow, drug addiction is becoming more visible.

In this way a process of degradation is beginning of many of those who could compose the new well-educated and well-qualified elite of the state; the state acutely needs them during its transition to the market economy. However, the overwhelming number of drug addicts die before they reach the age of 30, and most of them become incapacitated even earlier.

The average life expectancy of drug addicts after they begin using narcotics is between 4 and 4.5 years.

1.4. The fact that narcotics are becoming more and more accessible to young people, and that new drugs (including those with a powerful destructive capacity) are peddled in growing volumes on the Russian market, is above all evoking alarm.

In Moscow's schools in particular the mass sale of drugs at very reduced prices has been noted--with the obvious goal of attracting as many schoolchildren as possible to drugs. The price naturally skyrockets after they have become addicted. Moreover, instances have been increasingly recorded of free-of-charge distribution (of course, only at the initial stage) of drugs among young people in many areas of the country.

In the Amur region during the campaign "Life without Fear," it came to light that approximately 50% of the young people regularly use drugs.

1.5. Poppy stems, raw opium and opium solution, marihuana, ephedrine, hashish, LSD, methadone, heroine, cocaine, and "ecstasy" (methylene-dioximethylamphetamine) are widely used drugs in Russia.

At the same time, the appearance of new synthetic drugs, including those that are produced in Russia, presents a special danger.

During the last four years, law-enforcement bodies uncovered more than three hundred clandestine laboratories where drugs were manufactured or new drugs were being developed. It is significant that many of these laboratories employed professional chemists who had succeeded in creating a new generation of narcotic substances. Some of these laboratories were located in educational centers, especially in Moscow.

The general volume of synthetic drugs confiscated in such laboratories has increased by almost 1.5 times.

1.6. In Moscow and St.Petersburg alone, monthly sales on the narcotics market amount to approximately 90 million US dollars, while for the whole country the money turnover from the drug sales amounted to almost 1.5 billion dollars in 1996.

According to the preliminary estimates for 1997, this figure amounted to over 2.5 billion dollars. At the same time, some Western specialists give a figure of 5 and even 7 billion dollars.

St. Petersburg occupied first place with respect to the use and sale of narcotics in Russia in 1997.

The "standard margin profit" for drug operations amounts to between 300 and 2,000 percent. It is known that a kilogram of heroine costs 9,000 dollars in Afghanistan, $25,000 in Tadjikistan, and up to $150,000 in Moscow.

According to the latest data, about 20,000 people are involved in active narcotics trafficking in Moscow alone.

1.7. In this regard, data from the RF Ministry of Interior shows that the number crimes linked with narcotics and related substances grew from 16,255 to 96,645 over the last five years, that is by almost by six times.

Out of 10 crimes against property, almost six are committed by drug addicts.

The overwhelming number of these crimes is committed by people under 35 years old.

1.8. It is well known that narcotics cost a lot of money. A long-term drug addict taking heroine today needs up to 500 (denominated) rubles daily to obtain drugs. Naturally in the overwhelming number of cases it is impossible to get this kind of money by legal means. Consequently, drug addiction from its conception is imbued with crime.

1.9. Statistical data inexorably testifies to the very tight connection between the growth of drug addiction in the country and the increase in the number of those ill with AIDS, viral hepatitis, and other very serious diseases (1996 alone produced an 8(!) times increase in HIV infection). As a result, the state's expenditures on their treatment are growing considerably.

One of the most vivid examples in recent years is the town of Verhniya Salda in the Urals. In a town with a population of 52 thousand people, 36 people have been infected with HIV (in comparison, in Yekaterinburg, with the population of 1.5 million, 15 people have been infected). The source of the infection proved to be a young married couple of drug addicts who, upon arriving from Ukraine, began actively to distribute narcotics.

In 1997 the number of newly diagnosed HIV-infected cases grew by 1.6 times over 1996 and exceeded the overall number of HIV-infected patients for the preceding 10 years. The highest number of HIV-patients was registered in Kaliningrad - 1706 persons, Krasnodar - 1098, Nizhni Novgorod - 530, Tver - 693, Rostov-na-Donu - 866, Saratov - 330, Moscow and the Moscow Region - 710, Tyumen - 130 persons.

Over 91% (!) of the newly diagnosed HIV-infected cases in 1997 were among people who take drugs intravenously and commonly used syringes and needles were the established sources of infection.

Over the past ten years the number of deaths from narcotics use has increased by 12 times, and among children by 42 times(!).

It is impossible to ignore the fact that, according to the data of the RF Ministry of Interior, the number of homeless children in the country is approximately one million. Among them drug addiction is becoming an every-day practice--practically half of them have either tried or are already taking drugs on a more or less regular basis.

1.10. A new dangerous phenomenon is the appearance of "family drug addiction", i.e., instances when one family member involves the others in drug use. This is particularly noticeable with young families, above all in Moscow and other large cities. According to preliminary estimates, there are already tens of thousands of such couples. Cases have been recorded when parents involved their own underage children in drug addiction.

1.11. Extremely alarming data about the drug addiction problem is coming from the country's armed forces. In many regions--especially in Moscow, areas around Moscow, and Kaliningrad--practically every twelfth draftee during the past two-to-three years has tried drugs, while one out of every thirty has been taking them more or less regularly.

Whereas in the 1980s the use of narcotics in the army was quite rare (with the exception of servicemen who had participated in combat operations in Afghanistan), today it has become a serious problem. There are hundreds of cases of narcotics use and drug trafficking in military units in all the military districts without exception. Drug addicts have been also diagnosed in the federal security bodies.

According to preliminary data, in 1996 alone over one hundred people in the army were convicted of drug trafficking.

1.12. Whereas in the Soviet era cases of the regular delivery of narcotics to criminals in penitentiaries were rare, nowadays in practically all the correctional institutions of the country there is a growing and, significantly, well-organized delivery of narcotics. That is also true of places where juvenile delinquents are imprisoned.

According to some preliminary estimates, in the recent years between 100 and 200 kilograms of various narcotics have been annually supplied to penitentiaries.

There are about one million people imprisoned in penitentiaries at present--in this way a huge base is being formed for the expansion of drug use in the future.

1.13. Statistical data and the information supplied by doctors at drug treatment clinics indicate that in all only 5-6% of drug addicts are cured (defined as doing without drugs for over one year) in Russia.

And this information refers primarily to the large cities. In small towns and in rural localities the chances of rehabilitation are practically nil due to the absence of both specialists and rehabilitation centers.

1.14. The number of patients diagnosed for the first time as "drug addicts" in 1996 increased by 34% as compared with those in 1995; the increase over the preceding year of "toxicomaniacs" and "narcotics abusers" were 42% and 25%, respectively.

By the beginning of 1994, 38.7 thousand people had been registered as drug addicts in the medical centers of Russia; at the end of 1994, 49.9 thousand; at the end of 1995, 65 thousand; and at the beginning of 1997, 88 thousand. In other words, in 4 years the number of such patients in Russia grew by over two times. But this figure does not reveal the true dynamics of the problem.

The number of adolescents under medical observation at the end of 1996 exceeded by almost 11 times the figure for 1992.

If one takes into account the calculation of specialists that the true number of drug addicts exceeds by 10 times the number of registered patients, then their total number in Russia at present approaches one million people.

1.18. The danger of the narcotic flood is all the greater as over the past ten years due to the shortage of required financing, the number of narcological clinics in Russia decreased by one third, the number of places for patients - by 60(!) percent, while the number of narcologists dropped by 25 percent.

2. The Main Routes of Entry of Narcotics into the Russian Federation
   and their Main Channels of Distribution

2.1. At present Russia attracts drug traffickers for two main reasons: its huge, practically undeveloped domestic market, and its key location as a transit country within the international narcotics market.

There are definite differences in the volumes, types, and forms of transfer of narcotics in each sphere.

2.2. The main flow of drugs for the domestic market comes from the direction of central Asia--Afghanistan, Pakistan, and the former Soviet republics--Tadjikistan, Uzbekistan, Kirghizia, Kazakhstan, and as yet to a small degree, Turkmenistan. These drugs are primarily heroine and opium.

2.3. It is well known that the first heavy flood of drugs from Afghanistan swamped the territory of the USSR during the period of the Afghanistan war. At present there exists a powerful, well-functioning supply network of narcotics from Afghanistan, where tens of thousands of people are engaged in narcotics production. According to data of the UN committee on the control of narcotics trafficking, Afghanistan annually supplies approximately 300 tons of opium to the black market.

Furthermore, there has been an increase in deliveries to Russia of pure heroin produced in laboratories in Pakistan.

The main flow comes through Tadjikistan, where it is impossible to completely seal off the border on account of the events occurring there. The Russian border troops stationed in Tadjikistan are for many reasons not in a position to effectively oppose the flow of narcotics, though they are doing everything they can.

Along with these facts, the recent appearance of large shipments of narcotics in Moscow and the other large cities of the country, primarily of heroin, forces one not to rule out the possibility of the use by drug dealers of the airplanes of the Russian military transport fleet (it is know that similar cases took place during the Afghan War).

According to the information of the Federal Border Service, no more than 5-10% of the narcotics sent to (or through) Russia are seized at the Tadjik-Afghan border.

One can grasp the real figure if one takes into account that the volume of drugs seized annually comprises over a ton and a half.

From Tadjikistan, drugs mainly flow to Kirghizia, where the town of Osh has in the recent years become a major transhipment point for the narcotics mafia.

It is worth noting that in the course of their numerous operations against the narcotics mafia, law-enforcement bodies have repeatedly detained the leaders of the various governing bodies of this town.

Drugs are then brought to Russia, either by couriers or, especially from the territory of Kazakhstan, by truck transport. The railroad is also used quite intensively, while couriers sometimes deliver relatively small consignments of drugs by planes.

However, in the past three years a very significant volume of narcotics has been brought into Russia and the countries of Western Europe from Afghanistan and Pakistan in containers, together with various industrial and agricultural goods.

One can in particular cite the example of the transit of containers, with 1.75 tons of hashish, from Afghanistan to The Netherlands through St.Petersburg.

The intensification of the drug flow into Russia through Central Asia is not only linked with the loose control exercised from that direction, but also to the fact that Iran not too long ago introduced capital punishment for all drug dealers, which resulted in the transportation routes through its territory that had been used earlier becoming too dangerous.

There has been an increase in the number of cases connected with smuggling drugs and drastic medical substances from China. Only during the Potok (Current) raid in 1997, law-enforcement and customs bodies detected 128 cases of smuggling ephedrine and ephedrine-containing drugs.

2.4. A certain share of the drugs, especially poppy stems, comes from the territory of Ukraine, and the volumes of delivery grow with every year; the fact that consignments of dozens of kilograms are seized no longer causes a sensation.

There are sufficient grounds to assert that Ukraine is definitely turning into the main supplier of narcotics of the opium class. It is worth noting in this regard that the main producers and suppliers of these narcotics are the inhabitants of the six regions of Western Ukraine, including the Ivano-Frankivsk, Chernivtsy and Lviv regions.

The statistics show that from 1991 through 1996, the amount of seized poppy stems grew from almost 6 thousand kilograms to 19.1 kilograms, i.e., by more than three times.

Whereas in 1991 63 kilograms of opium were confiscated, in 1996 this figure grew to 1400 kilograms.

Various kinds of narcotics from Azerbaijan and Georgia are also finding more regular channels of delivery. From Azerbaijan, a shipment most likely will go by truck, together with fruits and vegetables.

2.5. Inside the Russian Federation proper, the Far East remains the main zone of the illegal growing of cannabis. One should admit, however, that there has emerged a clear tendency for cannabis plantations (though small in size) to appear in the European part of Russia, as well as in the Urals and in Eastern Siberia.

2.6. The number of cases of "kitchen gardens," when cannabis is grown on individual land allotments, has grown sharply. Even in the Moscow Region, over 100 cases in recent years have come to light of the growing of cannabis in summer cottage communities.

On the whole, according to the data of the Ministry of Interior, in 1996 alone 28 thousand instances of the illegal sowing of narcotic plants were exposed, and over 3 thousand hectares (!) of wild narcotic plants were destroyed.

2.7. The growth of the delivery of narcotics to Russia from Latin American countries has become obvious in the past two years. So far these deliveries have been more in the nature of transshipments that are directed primarily at drug users in the countries of Western Europe and the USA. In this case Russia acts as either a transit or a transshipment point.

One of the most vivid examples of the growth in the volume of deliveries was the seizure in St. Petersburg in 1996 of a consignment of cocaine from Columbia (under the guise of canned meat), weighing almost a ton and with a value on the order of a 100 million dollars.

Naturally, such a volume was not intended exclusively for Russia (almost a million people could be turned into drug addicts with this amount); most of it was to proceed elsewhere. A Russian company in St. Petersburg was the recipient of the cargo.

2.8. There is every reason to note that the international narcotics business has begun actively taking steps to include the Russian market into its sphere of influence (with the prospect of gaining control over it) with the goals of ensuring the direct deliveries of narcotics (primarily heroine and cocaine), the laundering of narcodollars, and the development of new and safe narcotics transit routes from Latin America to Europe.

2.9. Despite the large consignments, the principal volume of narcotics continues to be brought into Russia with the help of drug couriers.

The seizure of consignments of heroine of up to two kilograms at Moscow's airports no longer appears anything especially unnatural.

It is common practice to use primarily inhabitants of the Central Asian republics in the role of drug couriers from the south; this is connected in particular with the high level of unemployment existing, for example, in Tadjikistan. However, cases of the transshipment of narcotics from this region by Russian citizens, including by train, have become more frequent.

Couriers who bring drugs from abroad, especially from Latin America, are primarily citizens of Nigeria and Afghanistan. However, recently the number of Russian citizens, recruited in particular among the so-called shuttle traders, has grown. In the past three years, around 100 Russian subjects have been detained in various countries for the transport of narcotics.

2.10. The speed and scale of the distribution of narcotics on Russian territory during the last five years enables one to say that we are confronting a pandemic. The mechanisms of drug distribution are functioning to one degree or another in practically all the 89 members of the Russian Federation.

2.11. On the territory of the Russian Federation, one can in principle single out several major zones of narcotics distribution. The first place in drug consumption, undoubtedly, belongs to Moscow and St. Petersburg, though there has been a noticeable increase in many other regions--the Krasnodar Territory, the Kaliningrad Region, the Sverdlovsk Region, the Republic of Dagestan, the Khabarovsk and Primorski Territories, and the Moscow Region.

2.12. The influence of the spread of narcotics on the crime situation is quite obvious. In particular, in the Moscow Region, the number of drug-related crimes increased by 12 times (!) during a five-year period. Only slightly more than ten major drug dealers have been sentenced and imprisoned over the past year and a half.

2.13. The peculiarity of Moscow and its region lies in the fact that most of the expensive and hard drugs (heroine, cocaine, ephedrine) go there.

A considerable share of these are distributed among criminals, though a trend has arisen whereby their distribution among the social sphere has expanded--cases have become more frequent of the use of these narcotics by businessmen and representatives of the artistic elite and show-business.

According to some estimates, practically half of Russia's leading performing artists have taken or are taking these drugs at present (in particular, cocaine--labeled an "intellectuals' drug"--is becoming quite fashionable).

2.14. In the past three years in practically all the large cities, especially in Moscow and St. Petersburg, there has been a dramatic increase (by tens and hundreds of times) in the use of the most popular youth drug of this decade--methylene-dioximethylamphetamine (MDMA), colloquially known as "ecstasy".

This narcotic is a powerful stimulator, with a weak hallucinogenic effect, that affects the body for 6 - 8 hours. In 1971, MDMA was recognized an especially dangerous drug and was entered into List # 1 of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.

In the USA, where it was prohibited back in 1985, as well as in most European countries, it belongs to the class of category "A" narcotics, along with heroine and crack.

The main distribution channel of "ecstasy" is through youth discotheques and higher educational institutions. In Moscow in particular, it is possible to acquire this narcotic almost openly in practically 90% of the discotheques (in Great Britain, one can get a life sentence for distributing MDMA), though one should note that in recent months the capital's law enforcement authorities have been paying considerably more attention to the main centers of "ecstasy" distribution.

Three main channels for the entrance of "ecstasy" presently exist: the Netherlands, Poland, and Germany. In all three countries there are well-developed illegal facilities for producing MDMA, a great deal of which is intended for Russia (accounted for especially by the fact that, as in other countries, "ecstasy" has become an integral part of the "rave culture," which Russian young people are actively absorbing).

The delivery of "ecstasy" from the above countries is carried out primarily by couriers--both Russian or foreign nationals-by means of automobile, train, and plane transport.

Criminal organizations have been particularly interested in this drug as profits from transactions involving "ecstasy" can reach 2000 percent.

According to the available data, a new surge in the use of this drug in Russia should be expected in the near future considering that in the past 5-6 months its area of distribution has clearly expanded.

2.15. Another serious challenge for Russia includes problems related to the need for an efficient control system at the chemical and pharmaceutical plants where drugs and their components are used. There are hundreds of such enterprises throughout the country.

There are two main problems in this regard: the direct pilferage of drug-containing components at the enterprises (such cases annually number over 200) and the unregistered production of narcotic substances (according to some sources, this comprises 3-5% of the total production volume of such firms).

Furthermore, during the last four years there has been a nearly seven-fold increase in the number of thefts of narcotic substances from hospitals and pharmacies, as well as a three-fold increase in the number of cases involving forged prescriptions for narcotic-containing substances. The efforts of the Ministry of Interior resulted in the reversal of this tendency, and these crimes have started decreasing since 1996. In 1997 there were 289 cases (a decrease of 57.9%).

2.16. The total weight of the drugs removed in 1997 from illegal distribution amounted to 50 tons. Criminal charges for drug-related offences were brought against 102 thousand people (an increase of 64% against 1996). Out of this number of indicted people, 8.5 thousand are drug dealers who committed 25.6 thousand crimes.

The work against illegal drug trafficking was most effectively conducted in St.Petersburg, Moscow, the Novosibirsk, Rostov, Samara, Sverdlovsk Regions and the Krasnodar Territory.

3. The Narcotics Mafia in Russia

3.1. It is well-known that until the end of the 1980s the Soviet Union was considered to be in a relatively favorable position as regards the distribution and consumption of narcotics.

Of course, facilities in the country had developed for the production of various kinds of narcotics, though in small quantities. This production was entirely illegal and was intended for the use of a very narrow, "specific" community--free and imprisoned criminals.

Besides that, some of the narcotics market was intended for the republics of Central Asia, where light drugs were frequently considered an element of the traditional national life style, and their use was perceived as a relatively everyday occurrence.

3.2. In Russia at present a narcotics mafia in the literal meaning of this word is forming; it is a multi-faceted structure that includes the organization of production, reprocessing, transportation, and distribution of narcotic substances on a national scale.

In its structure, the national narcotics mafia consists of three parts, which represents the classic Mafia pyramid.

The first part, which serves as its base, comprises retail traders, who in Moscow alone include several thousand people.

The second part are medium-size wholesalers and carriers who employ "security units" to protect the goods in transit and the local traders.

The third part is the upper echelon, whose members have no direct dealings with narcotics. Their task is to plan operations and launder the money that is received.

A peculiar consideration is the fact that due to well-known reasons it cannot be a "Russian Mafia" in the ethnic meaning of this word.

The criminal groups operating in the various regions of Russia seldom have mono-ethnic compositions. Moreover, they are forced to cooperate with those organizations that were quite active on the territory of the former USSR--especially criminals from Tadjikistan, Kazakhstan, Georgia, and Azerbaijan.

3.3. The latter are the main force in the drug market in a number of regions. In Moscow and the areas near Moscow in particular, Tadjiks, Afghans and Azeris control practically 100% of the heroine trade, as well as a considerable share of the marihuana market.

3.4. Furthermore, according to the data of the law-enforcement agencies, at present several thousand foreigners are engaged in the narcotics business in Moscow. For over three years now, communities of foreign nationals involved in the narcotics trade have existed in Moscow--the largest of these are the Afghans, Chinese, and Vietnamese.

The Afghan group specializes in the delivery from Afghanistan primarily of heroine through the Central Asian republics and the market in Moscow. It devotes most of its efforts to the continued transfer of narcotics through Russia to Western Europe and the USA.

The Chinese are noted for the distribution of various types of synthetic narcotics, while the Vietnamese are involved a little in the entire drug spectrum.

It should be noted that in the past two years there has been an almost ten-times increase in the amount of ephedrine illegally brought in to Russian territory from China, especially in the Far East for its further shipment to other regions.

In Moscow and its surrounding region, there are several hundred Nigerian "pushers" whose preference is to sell cocaine and heroine. It is noteworthy that drugs are not produced in Nigeria itself, but Nigerians, especially students, appear frequently as carriers and couriers of narcotics. They mainly specialize in bringing drugs to Russia from West European countries.

3.5. At present, despite the growing cooperation and interaction between the major drug trafficking groups inside the country, and the expansion of their international contacts, an obvious narcotics cartel of the "Medellin-type" (which could under certain conditions start to actively infiltrate the country's economic and political power structures) has not yet emerged in Russia.

3.6. This does not however mean that such a danger will remain absent in the future. On the contrary, given the internationalization of crime and the increasingly active role of Russian criminal groups in the international arena, it can only grow. Suffice it to say that practically every operation aimed at seizing large consignments of narcotics revealed the presence of foreign links in the network.

3.7. During the past three years at least four meetings have been held between leaders of Russian criminal groups and the most influential international narcotics business organizations in the world, from the USA and Latin America. Two of these occurred in Colombia, one on the Caribbean islands, and one in the United States.

According to the information available, the issue of global cooperation in the field of drug trafficking, and the creation of favorable political conditions for it at the national level, was discussed at them.

According to the available data, the main Latin American partner of Russian organized crime involved in the narcotics business is the large Colombian Kali cartel, which in its dealings with Russia specializes in cocaine deliveries.

How profitable this business is for foreign criminal organizations is shown by the fact that, while the price of one gram of cocaine in Moscow in the early 1990s reached 200-250 and more US dollars, in the manufacturing country the price for the same amount was $20-30. Nowadays the price of cocaine in Russia has dropped by at least two times, but mass consumption has increased, so the revenue of the foreign narcotics mafia that ensures the supply cocaine to Russia did not drop much.

With this in mind, preventing negative developments--i.e., the appearance of a similar cartel in Russia, and, if possible, excluding foreign narcotics dealers from here altogether--is the main task of the state and all its agencies, above all those involved in law enforcement.

3.8. One ought to especially single out the problem of money laundering by the Russian narcotics mafia. The sum is huge--on the order of one billion dollars, which is laundered predominately here in Russia.

Above all this concerns the laundering of money through front organizations involved in cash sales--especially restaurants, gambling establishments, etc.

Furthermore, cash handed in by shop assistants to the "cash-box" is continuously exchanged for foreign cash currency by representatives of these organizations at the exchange offices of some banks. A recent example of this is how the Sherhan Company in Moscow (founded by Afghans) daily exchanged tens (and sometimes even hundreds) of millions of rubles at the exchanges of the MDM and the Russian Financial Initiatives banks.

The acquiring with drug money of the stocks of various Russian enterprises, primarily those involved in fuel and energy and in the telecommunication market, has become a new sector for the narcotics mafia since 1996. According to some estimates, at least 900 billion rubles were spent for this purpose in 1996.

3.9. It must be noted that in Russia a "drug lobby" has already formed. It exercises fairly strong pressure on various groups, including federal and regional law makers, with the purpose of preventing any toughing of the national legislation against drug addiction.

A part of this lobby operates publicly: in particular, the Radical Party and several other associations, which are openly carrying out a wide-scale promotional campaign that includes the publication of books, leaflets, brochures, and newspapers with articles regarding their philosophy and methods of taking drugs. According to the most guarded estimates, the total print run of drug literature has exceeded five million copies in the past five years.

3.10. One can not help feeling concerned by the fact that people who have a strong influence on youth, first of all, some rock music and rock culture stars take part in promoting narcotic substances, often realizing quite well what they are doing.

4. The Fight with Drug Addiction in other Countries: Problems and Results

4.1. Drug addiction is a problem of a growing number of states. Various national models exist for fighting the distribution and consumption of narcotics; these can be provisionally placed into three groups.

4.2. The first is the "tough policy group," in which the struggle is conducted by the most severe methods, including capital punishment, and the legislation against drug trafficking is quite severe. Malaysia, Iran, and Pakistan are its most prominent members.

Statistical data show that, despite such measures, drug-related crimes (in particular, their transportation) still increase by 2-3% a year.

4.3. The second group is the "strict control group." Its members carry out strict control over all kinds of drugs, actively oppose the narcotics mafia, but do not undertake extreme measures. The USA, Great Britain, and France in particular belong to this group. In the USA, for instance, most states punish not only the possession and use of drugs, but even an attempt to buy them. In Britain and France, courts send drug addicts to compulsory treatment. It should be noted, however, that in the last three years these countries have been toughening their approach.

In the countries belonging to this group, above all in the USA, the fight against drugs within the legal sphere is simultaneously combined with a very powerful information and promotion campaign aimed primarily at the most vulnerable categories of the population: the unemployed, school children, and university students.

This results above all from a realization that drug addiction causes enormous losses to society--the annual damage from it amounts to approximately 150 billion dollars.

4.4. The third group is the "liberal group." Its most well-known representatives are the Netherlands and Switzerland (Zurich).

One ought to immediately note a false myth has taken root, including in Russia, that drugs are fully legalized in the Netherlands. This is not how things stand.

The legalization of "soft" drugs (above all marihuana), which started in the mid-1950s, did not in the end result in an expansion of the list of narcotic substances whose distribution was permitted.

The number of drug-related offenses really did partially stabilize, but there was no fundamental change. The Netherlands, especially Amsterdam, moreover, have turned into "the drug pit of Europe."

The Dutch Government believes that the opportunity exists in their country to effectively control drug addicts; the country does not have its own "raw material" or drug-production facilities, and there exists a well-developed network of charitable and medical assistance to drug addicts. At the same time, it does not take into consideration the tolerance factor, that is, drug addicts' need to continuously increase their doses.

There is the example of Spain, whose government followed the example of the Netherlands in 1985. As a result, over the decade the number of the registered drug addicts alone grew from 200 thousand to almost 1.6 million people.

4.5. The peculiar feature of the present situation is that, within the framework of a "Europe without borders," the Netherlands position as a center of narcotics distribution is strengthening, which alarms many countries, above all France, where the growth of crimes with a "Dutch trace" amounted to nearly 20% in the last three years.

4.6. The USA has achieved the greatest success in fighting drugs--in the past decade the number of people using narcotics fell by 50%.

One of the main reasons is the fact that the war against drug addiction began to acquire a genuinely national dimension, and included the efforts of both the government and such non-governmental organizations as For a Drug Free America (some of their material is attached).

Here are the key elements of this campaign:

• recognition of the problem of drug addiction as a national one, and the development of a long-term (10-year) program/strategy;
• allocation of the financial resources needed by law-enforcement agencies for the conducting of a vigorous campaign both within and outside the country;
• broad international cooperation for the purpose of preventing the entry of narcotics into US territory;
• a well-defined promotional and informational campaign (primarily aimed at young people aged nine and higher) based on the assumption that it is easier to prevent the use of narcotics than to treat drug patients;
• well-targeted and broad involvement of social movements and public organizations at all levels, from the national to the community level;
• involvement in the anti-drug campaign of the most prominent political (including the US President) and public figures (such as film and show business stars, and athletes);
• maximum use of the family as the basis of opposition to narcotics;
• involvement of commercial and financial organizations in the war against drugs.

One must note in this regard that expenditures on the anti-drug campaign in the USA in recent years have comprised on the order of one billion dollars annually.

4.7. On the international arena, some efforts are undertaken above all by the United Nations Organization in the framework of the UNDKP.

First of all, this involves information-related activities connected with the global monitoring of the state of affairs regarding narcotics and the drawing up of general recommendations to governments for fighting drug addiction. The problem of narcotics addiction is raised in practically all key documents of the UN and its specialized agencies (in particular, the World Health Organization).

Secondly, these efforts involve practical assistance to a number of countries (primarily in Latin America) that produce narcotics with the aim of reorienting their peasants to the cultivation of agricultural products.

Third, it involves managing a register of prohibited narcotic substances. At present, this includes around 200 varieties, of which only seven are natural; all the others are synthetic.

5.1. We should publicly recognize that the problem of the distribution and consumption of narcotics in Russia is a national problem that demands immediate state action insofar as, due to its long-term consequences, it must be classified as a direct threat to the national security of Russia. This recognition must be made at the highest level.

It is also essential to realize that today Russia is in a unique situation. It belongs to the few states that are zones of drugs consumption, production and transit at the same time.

5.2. A proper understanding of this threat both to the social stability of society and to the health of the nation as such has yet to occur within Russian society.

The drug addiction problem is not always understood as an independent one, frequently being considered within the general context of crime.

It is necessary to reverse this attitude, and it can be achieved through the involvement of all the major organizations of the society and the state--from the law-enforcement agencies to the medical and educational bodies. Even the most resolute measures will, if taken within only one of these sectors alone, prove ineffective.

5.3. Above all it is essential to stimulate society itself to more actively resist the narcotics pandemic. A vigorous informational and public relations campaign is needed.

Mass Media against Drugs movement (led by V.Goussinski, K.Ponomarev, G.Yavlinski), which was set up on 19 December 1997, is one of the first important steps in this direction. It ought to be backed by the authorities.

Taking into account the drug-distribution system in cities, primarily large ones, it is expedient to conduct a national campaign entitled Drugs-Free Zone. Special attention should be given to places where young people study and relax. It is important to elaborate a system of moral and financial support to organizations, centers and stores that are ready to participate in this campaign.

It is also important, if possible, to incorporate into legislation application of sanctions against organizations where drugs are distributed.

The basis for it is being shaped now. In late November 1997, the Moscow City Duma adopted the law On sanctions against organizations and enterprises involved on the city territory in the activity that promotes increasing drug addiction and toxicomania in Moscow.

It provides, in particular, that if in the course of a discotheque inspection, militiamen find people in the state of drug intoxication or discover instances of drug use or drug distribution, then a report will be made against the firm that organized the event. On the basis of this report, the Moscow city authorities will be able to take decisions about imposing fines equal to 500 minimal wages. If the offence is repeated within the next six months, the fine may go up by two times while the operation of the firm can be declared "socially dangerous". The law also provides penalties for repeated offences, which include withdrawal of patents and licenses, as well as annulment of rent contracts.

5.4. As statistical data demonstrates that the most dangerous age for involvement in drug addiction is between 12 - 17, a special program Youth and Drugs should be drawn up, which would attach special attention to psychological influence on this age group through, first of all, mass media. Foreign experience in this field should be actively made use of, especially that of the US.

It should be a continuous-action campaign covering all major directions:

• mass media;
• educational establishments of all levels;
• legislative and executive bodies.

The basic specific feature of this campaign in the Russian Federation will be close cooperation of state bodies and the public. The experience of the past two years proves that one-sided activity does not bring the desired effect. One can not expect getting a real effect only through the efforts of individuals or public organizations.

It is also important for this campaign in Russia not to be limited to the federal-center level only but to receive real support from the heads of the Federation members. It is also essential to provide adequate financing in the budgets at all levels.

5.4. A helpful impetus could be given by a special Presidential address to Russian society on the problem of drug addiction. The President can also provide his personal patronage to the entire range of measures that are being undertaken both at the state and the societal levels in the struggle with drugs addiction.

5.6. A special public hearing that was held in the State Duma on March 2, 1998 became an important event aimed at raising of public awareness of the drug addiction issue. First and foremost, the hearing helped to proceed with coordinating efforts of various state bodies and public organizations, as well as to define the necessary future legislative measures.

With regard to the federal law On Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, adopted by the State Duma and signed by President Yeltsin, certain additions and amendments are to be introduced to a number of federal acts. Monitoring is to be exercised over the performance of executive authorities responsible for due preparation of the legal normative acts provided for by the above-mentioned law.

5.7. The Russian Federation has adopted a Concept of State Policy for the Control of Narcotics (approved by the President of the Russian Federation on July 22, 1993).

Along with the issues of preventing the abuse of narcotics and treating and socially rehabilitating drug addicts, the document establishes the task of improving the anti-narcotics legislation. In particular, it provides for the regulation of the legal sale of drugs used for medical and scientific purposes, and a review of the existing criminal and administrative legislation concerning liability for drug-related offenses. It also provides for the introduction of compulsory treatment as a measure replacing criminal punishment for misdemeanors that do not present a great social danger, as well as a number of other new legislative ideas. However, the basic proposals of the Concept have yet to be realized in the field of legislation.

A government commission on countering the abuse of narcotic substances and their illegal sale was formed in July 1994. The task of the commission is the conducting of a unified strategy and the coordination of the efforts of various state agencies in this field. A Vice Premier of the government heads the commission.

Regretfully, one must note that, due to a number of reasons (including objective ones), the effectiveness of the work of this commission has turned out to be close to zero.

A special federal program entitled, "A Group of Measures to Resist the Abuse of Narcotics and their Illegal Sale for 1995-1997 (adopted by a Government Decree on June 3, 1995) also provided for a range of measures and steps, which included the development of analytical projects, and a campaign in the mass media and the educational institutions.

However, it did not receive the required funding either from the federal budget or from local budgets. Experts believe that in the framework of the program, some positive experience has been accumulated, action programs at regional levels have been elaborated for over 65 regions of the country, interdepartmental commissions have been set up and are presently operating in 51 regions. Although, most of the planned activity has remained only on paper.

5.8. Russia still lacks one state body that would collect, process, and analyze information on the narcotics problem in all its aspects. Its creation is one of the most urgent tasks, for without it, it is impossible to efficiently plan the work of the state and society.

5.9 The problem of drug trafficking and the fight against drug addiction must be considered at the level of the CIS leaders on account of the fact that the main flow of narcotic substances enters Russian territory above all from Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Tadjikistan, and Kirgizia, as well as from Azerbaijan and Georgia.

5.10. It is quite obvious that the fight against drug addiction requires more active and developed international cooperation. The issue is the need both to improve the legal basis for such cooperation (by signing bilateral agreements) and for practical cooperation in particular in the conducting of operations for the control of the transit of narcotics through RF territory.

49 intergovernmental and interdepartmental agreements have been concluded by now that are partially or entirely devoted to cooperation in fighting the illegal drug turnover.

The Ministry of Interior of Russia has established operational contacts with those states where bilateral agreements have not been concluded. Direct contacts have by now been established with 47 foreign law-enforcement units fighting illegal drug trafficking.

It would be correct for Russia to try to achieve the inclusion of the problem of combating the illegal sale of drugs as a standing issue on the agenda of the summits of the leaders of the most developed states.

At the special session of the UN General Assembly on the fight against drug trafficking and drug addiction to be held in June 1998, it is expedient to present relevant information on the fight with drug addiction in Russia conducted by state bodies and non-governmental organizations.

5.11. It is necessary to create by the joint efforts of all the law-enforcement agencies of Russia and the CIS a special database that would include all people involved in the supply and distribution of narcotics. Under certain circumstances, representatives of the law enforcement agencies of other countries, above all those with whom the most close cooperation in the struggle against the narcotics business is required (the USA, the FRG, Great Britain, the Netherlands, China), should have access to this database.

5.12. Furthermore, it seems expedient to restrict (taking into account existing interstate agreements), the possibility of people participating in narcotics trafficking, or even simply suspected of it, coming to Russia. In particular, this could involve placing in the passports of citizens from the former Soviet republics special stamps, whose presence would rule out their staying on RF territory.

5.13. It is obviously necessary to increase the efficiency of law-enforcement units and special services when they monitor transactions of the drug dealers known to them with a purpose to prevent laundering criminally received money and to undermine the financial and other pillars of narcobusiness. The legal basis for it is in place, including the Methodical Recommendations (issued by a Letter of the Central Bank of Russia #479 of July 3, 1997) on organizing operations aimed at preventing penetration of illegally-received profits into banks and other credit organizations.

15.14. Special attention should be given to setting up in practically all regions of the Russian Federation Centers of rehabilitation for drug users and providing them with equipment and financing from both - budget resources as well as sponsors' contributions.

Financing issues should be constantly supervised by legislative bodies as well as public organizations as medical units and organizations of the members of the RF that provide assistance to drug addicts and alcoholics get only 30-60% of required funds.

5.15. The federal legislation contains no real obstacles for narcobusiness to penetrate the spiritual life of the Russian society. An increasing number of instances have been recorded when drugs are openly promoted by some music-world "stars" as well as journalists.

That is why it is expedient to introduce respective amendments, in particular, into such laws as On Mass Media, On Advertising, On state support to mass media and publishing business, and others.

5.16. It is necessary to conduct constant and comprehensive monitoring of drug abuse, drug flow and drug-related offences. It should include continuous representative sample research in order single out to rather precisely the latent amount of illegal production, sales and consumption of drugs, their structure and source. In doing this, it is also essential to set up a special database containing various data on the whole range of issues relating to drug addiction and drug business.

5.17. The need is obvious nowadays to urgently strengthen at all levels those units of the Ministry of Interior and the State Customs Committee that are involved in fighting illegal drug trafficking, while special attention should be attached to crucial zones - Moscow and St.Petersburg, Kaliningrad, Astrakhan, the Krasnodar Territory and the Northern Caucasus, as well as the Far East.

It is essential that technical equipment of all services fighting drug trafficking should be updated. It is expedient to more widely use new technical means for fighting drug transportation, in particular, gas analyzers capable of catching microscopic particles of drugs in all media. All customs check points should be equipped with them, as well as Ministry of Interior units on transport and in the zones of active drug trafficking.